“East of Eden” by John Steinbeck Essay

The prosecution will begin by establishing the character of the defendant, and further prove that the criminal acts committed by Ms. Catherine Ames were not random, but rather a part of a cynical mindset that deliberately caused harm. Catherine Ames was without a doubt, a stunning work of beauty with the power to make all heads turn everywhere she went. She have lovely gold hair, big hazel eyes, pointy small chin along with a delicate nose, and high cheekbones giving her a heart shaped face. She was an adorable child that became an irresistible woman with the power to make all man fall head over heels. With a timid smile and a soft spoken voice, this appears to be the perfect woman. However, let us not be fooled by her angelic appearance. Catherine Ames is a cruel, manipulative, sadistic being who knows how to get anything she wants through the lust from men. She was able to use her beauty to her advantage even as a young child. The very first incident was when Ms. Catherine Ames used her wittiness and manipulative skills to inflict moral and physical pain to two boys. The boys received immense punishments for actions that she herself encouraged, but declared herself a victim to preserve her reputation. Cathy used her sheer beauty and manipulation to seduce her Latin teacher James Grew. When she had James Grew’s heart in the palm of her hand, she denied him any affection or love, making him commit suicide. Cathy took an educated kind man and turned him into rubble just because she could. As Cathy grew she became more destructive and morally impotent. It became quite clear that Cathy had no respect for authority when she ran away from home and went to Boston. She was pushed to the edge after being caught trying to run away from home and was beat and punished. Driven by agitation she stole all her father’s money out of his safe. She cleaned the cellar and stuffed papers all around the edges of the foundation to block the draft. She oiled the hinges, the lock of the kitchen door and the hinges of the front door. She continued to prepare, on the night of the crime, she put on an old apron to protect her clothes and found a jelly jar and carried it to the carriage house. She then found a chicken, cut its head off, and filled the jar halfway with the blood. She then buried the evidence of the chicken.  She then took off the apron in the kitchen and put it on the stove. She poked the coals until the apron caught on fire. Again before leaving she hid the evidence of the jelly jar. She remorselessly locked her parents in their house and set it on fire. Her parents sad death did not make Cathy shed a tear as she was looking into a new exciting career: prostitution. When she meets Mr. Edwards she is keen to provoke him to become sexually attracted to her. After he puts her up in his own house, keeping her from his wife and providing for her, she begins to steal from him. She also locks him out of his own house and takes control of his property. When he realizes something horrible about Cathy, he attempts to get her drunk one night. While drunk she stabs him with a broken wine glass. Driven by her intoxication, she stabs him in the cheek and sends him running away from his own house. Her impulsive and evil nature was evident through her actions that night. After a bad run in with the whoremaster Mr. Edwards, Cathy successfully manipulated Adam Trask to fall in love with her. After Adam had provided Cathy with unconditional love and support during her weak time, she repaid him by sleeping with his brother Charles behind Adam’s back. After they moved to California to start off new Cathy and Adam had their twins she coldheartedly did not want to look at them claiming â€Å"No. I don’t want them† After she recovered from giving birth, she abandoned Adam and the twins. After abandoning her husband and children Cathy became a working girl in a whorehouse. Now under the alias Kate, Cathy manipulated Faye the owner of the whorehouse into signing a will giving everything to Cathie upon Faye’s death. After, slowly and painfully killing Faye, Cathie assumed control of the whorehouse. When it was thought that Cathy could not go any lower, when her son Caleb discovered the truth about her and wanted to be a changed man, she told him he can’t and he will become exactly like her as he grows up, sinful and damned. It’s quite clear that Cathy is not a noble human being with good intentions. Her life has been filled with nothing else but hatred for others and schemes to get as much money as possible. Evidence presented here after show the  criminal acts that Cathy has committed throughout her life, crimes that she admitted to performing without remorse. Cathy had committed crimes against law of the nation and crimes against religion as well. Even though she is no where near of being religiously moderate, she still followed the religion of Christianity for her marriage to Adam Trask. Cathy did commit some major felonies toward God such as committing adultery. First, adultery means having sexual relations between an individual who is married and someone who is not the individual’s spouse. In Christianity, adultery is considered a major sin which shows betrayal and lack of trust by that individual in the marriage. In the last two lines of Chapter 11, it states â€Å"Suddenly Charles laughed. â€Å"The Poor bastard,† he said, and he threw back the blanket to receive her.† Cathy did not care if she slept with Charles. Better yet, she does not embrace her marriage by sleeping with Charles. She is an embodiment of pure evil driven by self-hatred, desperation, and a love of pain, and Cathy destroys lives without any sen se of remorse. She wanted something to satisfy her cruel nature and did so behind Adam’s back. In the bible, Cathy is directly compared to Eve when Eve eats a forbidden fruit and introducing sin into the world. Cathy did the same by committing a forbidden act of trust and friendship. This proves to show the hypocrisy that exists in Cathy with no moral influence or structure. Cathy, without mentioning anything to her husband Adam, tried to abort her two children with a knitting needle while Adam was out obtaining information on his plot of land. If that isn’t terrible enough, Cathy gives the reason that she has a family history of epilepsy and did not want to pass it on to her children which is a blatant lie. This attempt at abortion was a complete secret from Adam until she was found unconscious due to a great lose of blood. Cathy tried to murder her unborn children while Adam was away and didn’t even tell him that she was pregnant in the first place. This was a disgusting act of attempted murder upon two completely helpless and vulnerable unborn children in which Cathy should be punished for. After Cathy attempted to murder her unborn children Cathy moved onto bigger and more horrific things. She attempted to murder Adam, her husband. A week after the birth of newborn twins, Cathy decides that she is going to abandon them and leave Adam alone. Before leaving, Cathy pulled out a handgun and shot Adam. Luckily she had bad aim and only hit him in the shoulder but we all know that she was aiming to kill him. After Cathy shot Adam, she ran out of the house and out of Adams’ life forever. This is the second time Cathy attempts to murder someone in her life. First it was her unborn children, and now her husband. Cathy is nothing but a murderer and cares for nothing but to inflict pain upon others. Another sin in which Cathy tries to commit is suicide. Suicide is not illegal by law in the nation except for some states, but this act of killing oneself is considered a sin and a crime against god. One of the commandments states that specifically â€Å"Thou shall not kill† which can pertain to a person’s life or their own life. In page 554, Cathy takes her own life by using a cyanide pill. This by far is much is strongly against the teachings of God and it goes against one of his commandments. God said there will be consequences for whoever commits suicide and that would be punishment in hell. Cathy may have her reasons to commit suicide, such as arthritic pain, low self esteem, and a painful life. However, this is the life she chose to follow as being sick and maliciously evil towards others which caused the downfall for her life.

“If You Educate a Boy, You Educate an Individual but If You Educate a Girl, You Educate a Nation”. Do You Agree?

The quote, â€Å"If you educate a boy, you educate an individual but if you educate a girl, you educate a nation† originated from an African proverb. It might have originated  because of the societal roles of men and women, society’s expectations, and the contribution each gender has made to the community. Both men and women have educated the nation in many different ways, either by contributing to the society, or to their families. Hence, I disagree with  this quote, as  not all men have never educated a nation.In society, men and women are expected to contribute to the society in different ways. The way they contribute to the society, and if it is seen as a contribution is affected by the societal roles and expectations of both genders. In a typical developed country, the societal role and expectations  of men is to be the breadwinner of the family, while women are expected to take care of the family, stay at home, and do domestic chores. However, the societal expectations of women are starting to change.More women are educated, and more are working, but women who work are expected to be able to balance work, and family. Men are usually seen as successful if they have a stable income and are able to support their families financially. It usually falls into the mother's responsibility to educate the children, which leads to ‘if you educate a girl, you educate the whole nation', as educating the children eventually leads to the children growing up and teaching their children, which includes the things that their parents taught them.On the other hand, no matter how busy the father is, there are still some occasions in which the father has disciplined the children, and taught the children, which, again, by teaching the children, leads to a contribution to society. Hence, the quote does not really apply here, as men and women both have contributions to the society; fathers and mothers both educate their children. The National Center for Educational Statistics reported that when fathers are involved in their children's education, the kids were more likely to get As, enjoy school, and participate in extracurricular activities.Also, researchers have found out that children whose fathers are involved in rearing them fare better on cognitive tests and in language ability than those with less responsive or involved fathers. Improved cognitive abilities are usually associated with higher educational achievement. In fact, fathers who are involved in their children's schools and academic achievement, regardless of their own educational level, are increasing the chances their child will graduate from high school, and perhaps go to vocational school, or even to college.On the other hand, researchers have discovered that mothers are more likely to encourage assimilative and communion-enhancing patterns in their children, and  to acknowledge their children's contributions in conversation. Furthermore, the way mothers speak t o their children is better suited to support very young children in their efforts to understand speech (in context of the reference English). Hence, if you educate a boy or girl, you educate the whole nation, as both men and women have different ways of contributing to the society, and educating the nation.The societal roles, societal expectations, and the examples of men and women who have contributed to society that I have mentioned above mainly apply to the people who live in a developed country. For example, countries like the United Kingdom, United States of America, and Singapore. However, it does not necessarily mean that the quote is true for less-developed or developing countries, for example, Africa. The societal role of men and women in Africa is almost the same as the more developed countries – the exception: only a few women in Africa are allowed to go to school.However, even though only a few women in Africa are allowed to go to school, it doesn’t necessa rily mean that they are not educated. They could have been educated by their parents, and educated the society by teaching their children. For example, African mothers often pass down folktales to their children – these folktales serve to teach their children good moral values, and help them to better understand the world around them, or skills like cooking – more often to females. In Africa, fathers are the breadwinner of the family, like in the more developed countries.In Africa, fathers educate the society by educating their children. They teach their children physical skills, like farming, and often tell their children stories about their experiences. Hence, educated men and women both contribute to their society, and educate their nation, irregardless of where they live. There are many men and women who have contributed to the society. Abraham Lincoln successfully led America through its greatest constitutional, military and moral crisis – the American Civi l war – by preserving the Union by force while ending slavery and promoting economic modernization.He helped to bring America’s economy to new heights. During Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth I's reign in England, there were great achievements in writing and peace in England. Teddy Roosevelt worked to provide workers, consumers, business owners, farmers, and other groups an equal opportunity to succeed, and he enforced workplace inspections, and regulated product labels, among other things. Marie Curie, a famous scientist, won two Nobel prizes, is famous for her work with her husband on radioactivity, and discovered radium and polonium.Her discoveries helped the world learn more about the elements in our universe. Fredrick Douglass escaped from slavery, became the leader of the abolitionist movement, gained note for his dazzling oratory and incisive antislavery writing, and stood as a living counter-example to slaveholders' arguments that slaves did not have the intellectua l capacity to function as independent American citizens. He helped to show that slaves deserved equal rights too.Maria Montessori, the first woman to graduate from the University of Rome's Medical College, is famous for her work in the education of young children. There are so many men and women in the world who have contributed to the society, be it in educating the people, helping to improve people's lives, or to share new discoveries that could be used in improving the life of people in the world. Unlike the quote, it isn't just women who have contributed to the society, but men have also contributed to the society.Men and women have both contributed to the society, be it in the same or in different ways. It is because of their contributions to society, that they have educated the nation, either by new discoveries, helping people, or by passing their knowledge on. In conclusion, the quote â€Å"If you educate a boy, you educate an individual but if you educate a girl, you educat e a nation† doesn’t really apply in today’s context. Women might educate their family more than males do, however males still do educate their families.Furthermore, men and women both contribute to the society through work, helping their society grow economically, and socially, by discovering new information, and using it to help to contribute to the society’s growth and well-being. There are also many examples of men and women who have played a part in educating the society. With these contributions to society by both educated men and women, both genders have played a part in educating their nation, or nations.

Why you can not use your phone while standing watch in the military Essay

Why you can not use your phone while standing watch in the military (navy) - Essay Example Mobile phones are huge distractors in the current society and there are many accidents that have been triggered by careless use of the mobile phones. Regardless of the type of watch, watch stander must devote full attention to it because the watcher helps in keeping the ship running smoothly. Moreover, maintaining a watch is essential in ensuring quality communication, security, and safety, elements that do not require any form of attention. Military requires high quality discipline is paramount because failure to abide by laws put in place may cause serious danger to the health of others or even risk in facilities. Watches such as security watches are supposed to prevent sabotage, protect property from damage and prevent access to restricted areas or even protect personnel, all these cannot be carried out successfully in case of any distraction by mobile phones. Mobile phones may lead to divided attention or even make an individual forget the duties to be carried out. Duties assigned to security watches do not require any form of distraction that mobile phones are associated with. Using mobile phone makes it difficult to maintai n continuous patrols above and below decks and reduces alertness for evidence of sabotage, thievery, and fire hazards. Additionally, use of mobile phone interferes with attention required in checking security of weapons, obtaining periodic sounding of designated tanks and inspecting damage control closures. Security watch is crucial in barracks in protecting it against fire, for safety of personnel and property as well as carrying out routines, all these requires security watch to be responsible for understanding and carrying out provisions of the fire bill and emergency bill. A security watch stander has essential responsibility of maintaining prescribed standards of order and discipline and therefore use of mobile phone

Money and banking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Money and banking - Essay Example Many securities that were attached to the US property prices fell drastically as well which caused problems in financial institutions globally. The initial reason why people started buying as government encouraged ownership of homes and gave people better and easier access to loans and they over valued the bundled mortgages because they perceived that the prices of property would continue to rise. Trade practices on the open market were conducted that seemed underhand and questionable and there was a lack of capital in insurance companies and banks. As a result, bank solvency on the global market fell as well and securities held by foreign banks also suffered. A credit tightening policy and a decrease in imports was noticed. Governments tried to boost the economy by injecting money in the economy and bailout packages. The US managed to get out by 2009 however places like UK due to their strict measures of increasing taxes actually slid further into this recession. The crisis could al so have occurred due to the presence of a wide base of financial products that were risky to acquire and hold. Also there were interest rate conflicts, and lack of regulators in credit rating agencies. A failure to retrace the ownership or provenance or properties and stocks etc. was also one of the reasons the recession occurred and then was so hard to get out of. Some believe that the recession was a phenomenon that arose when the Maastricht Treaty was signed. The debt of the public was agreed about less than equal to 3% of the GDP but it didn’t hold. The euro was to be doomed as soon as it got started or even before because Greece and Italy helped the euro classify as the currency for the euro zone. The decision making at that point were the worst. France has been under debt since 2008 and the situation has worsened over the years and one of their banks along with their criminal reputation is also under massive debt issues and still asked to fund neighboring countries howe ver it cannot help the bankrupt countries since it is in a fix of its own. Germany fell under a similar situation. Sovereign banks are wrongly being separated from bank debt when the government clearly controls everything a bank does and dictates to them what is to be done. The euro zone is at stake. Credit default swaps also rose in all regions and in 2011 were being traded at 180 when they were being traded at 80 in 2008. In Brazil as well they went up to 152 from 35, and this was because of the crisis that started in Europe. UK as well was cutting loans to its business by 30%. (Gupta, 2009) Banks were also pooling in their loans and giving risky loans to others. Securitization came about in the 20th century as well because loans would take ages being stuck in banks. Rating agencies were paid for giving good rating so people bought products even though they were not good. Initiated in Wall Street banks and other financial institutions were adopting measures that they were not nece ssarily good at. Banks were borrowing more and more money to give out loans and bad loans were incurred. Lehman brothers got into the mortgage market, buying mortgages so that they could sell them after securitizing them. Banks also started running out of people who would take loans

Identify knowledge & skills of PHC Nurses related health educatio Literature review

Identify knowledge & skills of PHC Nurses related health educatio - Literature review Example To describe precisely the skills, knowledge and attitudes that PHC nurses should posses with reference to healthcare education to the patients and the public. To measure the nurse’s level of scientific knowledge, required for health education at the PHC centres. The following sections presents a literature review of studies focused on different areas inside and outside Saudi Arabia. As the proposed research need to redefine the variables involved giving due attention to existing findings, these studies provide valuable information to start with, to describe precisely the skills, knowledge and attitudes that PHC nurses should posses with reference to healthcare education. Review of Literature Rasheed, and Al-Sowielem (2003) have examined the level of health awareness related to pregnancy and the sources of information among women visiting the Primary Health Centers in Al- Khobar, Saudi Arabia. This study is important to the context of this research because it has pointed to the fact that PHC nurses are poor sources of health information (p.37-38). This study has used a questionnaire to survey 581 women in child bearing age and this huge sample size lends great credibility to the findings that this study endorses. The study has explored whether information on food, rest, exercise, breast care, rubella, smoking, safe maternal age, spacing between pregnancies, and antenatal care, were available to the members of the sample and if so, what were the sources of this health information for them (Rasheed, and Al-Sowielem, 2003). The results showed that there was inadequate information given to the pregnant women from the PHC staff (Rasheed, and Al-Sowielem, 2003). Also, the authors mentioned that educational intervention during antenatal period is highly effective in improving the knowledge and health habits of pregnant women, an intervention that PHC nurses alone get the opportunity to impart with maximum effectiveness. Therefore, from this study it is necessary that nurses have knowledge on information about food, breast cancer among other factors significant for health education of pregnant women. Similarly, Al-Amoud (2003) showed from a study that there is need for PHC nurses to be equipped with knowledge or information about breast feeding so that they can assist breast feeding mothers with appropriate information during health education. The study examined the breastfeeding practice among women attending primary health centres in Riyadh that there is a clear decline of breastfeeding in Saudi Arabia. This study (Al-Amoud, 2003) has indirectly pointed to the need for improving training of PHC professionals including nurses so that they can give better education to the mothers on the importance of breastfeeding. These results of this study have been obtained through examining variables such as, number of children alive, marital status, occupation, and the level of education (Al-Amoud, 2003). Almalki, FitzGerald, and Clark (2012) in their investigation of nursing education in PHC setting have also stressed the important of the furthering nursing education in PHC setting. This is one of the main findings of the study carried out to assess the quality of work life among PHC Nurses in Jazan, south of Saudi Arabia (Almalki,

Movie Gattaca Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Gattaca - Movie Review Example to second-class citizen status and find that they cannot reach their goals, and their dreams severely impeded because society just cannot tolerate them and will obstruct their every hope and aspiration. They also suffer psychologically and emotionally because society not only treats them as pariahs but look at them as pitiful and scornful creatures. But this society itself is grossly myopic because it fails to see defect such as President Franklin Delano Roosevelt who suffered polio and yet campaigned and won the presidency or heptathlete Jackie Joyner Kersee who was asthmatic and yet ruled them all in Olympic heptathlon and the long jump for decades. The list is long and includes Alexander the Great, Julius Caesar, Albert Einstein, Helen Keller. The list goes on and on and probably include our own ancestors who shone and stood out despite physical limitations stressing the point that the most valuable thing is not what is evident to the eyes. MOVIE SYNOPSIS It is in the above backdrop that Vincent (Ethan Hawke), who was born In-Valid, meaning that because of poverty his parents could not afford to allow the foetal Vincent to undergo pre-implantation genetic diagnosis and DNA selection and thus be genetically engineered with superlative traits from both mother and father, was caught in a trying situation. As such, Vincent cannot qualify for professional jobs such as being an astronaut, which he dearly desired but had to content himself with menial jobs such as the cleaning job at Gattaca Aerospace Corporation, the NASA type of the future era. Unlike his brother Anton, who has the whole world in front of him, Vincent found out that because society practically shut the door in front of him, he had to work double time- learning, working and dreaming to remove the barriers placed before him. Instead of resigning himself to his fate, he saved money, led a frugal life while scavenging

The Balanced Scorecard Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The Balanced Scorecard - Essay Example The Balanced Scorecard Though the balanced scorecard system was originally developed by Kaplan and Norton to be implemented as a technique for performance management and evaluation, the technique is now used extensively by the organizations as a framework for implementation of new strategies in the business by the identification and deployment of the value drivers in the business with an aim to create strategic advantage. The Balanced Scorecard is a management framework comprising of the performance measurement system as well the process of meeting the key strategic objectives for the business. But there are several deficiencies associated with the original Balanced Scorecard framework as designed by Kaplan and Norton. These may be recognized as: The framework does not have a sufficiently codified mechanism to enable the organization to take decision regarding the inclusion and sustainability considerations in the design of the scorecard. Also, the balanced scorecard framework seems to lack the appropriate processes to evaluate risks that are beyond the client related risks. Other drawbacks of the balanced scorecard technique include the dependence of the scorecard on the performance and control features that do not originate from within the organization, the lack of rationality in the original framework of the scorecard model and the validity of the identified objectives based on which the cause and effect mappings are formed. (Banker and Chang, 2004). Also, the balanced scorecard technique does not take into account the effects of external competitive forces and the new technological necessities which are critical in deciding the performance of the organization and play a major role in deciding the risks and future strategies associated with the business. These shortcomings of the balanced scorecard framework can be addressed by including a wider array of people like social and environmental managers effectively in every critical step of the design and implementation of the balance d scorecard and considering the explicit social and environmental risk factors in the different perspectives involved in the building of the scorecard framework (Hoque, 2012). To effectively address the strategic issues created by both the external and internal factors affecting the performance of the organization, a number of techniques should be included in the balanced scorecard building and implementation processes (Merl, 2007). These may include encouraging the collaboration levels between the operations management unit, financial controllers, marketing management and the social or environmental management within the business, integrating a number of innovative strategic indicators into the balanced scorecard which are related to the social and environmental concerns and result in more value creation by the use of these activities and lastly, the identification of the critical strategic concerns related to the operations of the environmental and social wings of the organization . These strategies can be implemented by the use of mapping models and cause and effect diagrams (Kaplan and Norton, 2008). The balanced scorecard is often unsuccessful in meeting its objectives when there

Why has the conflict between India and Pakistan been so intractable Essay

Why has the conflict between India and Pakistan been so intractable - Essay Example However since independence the relations between the two nations have been very sour with India and Pakistan having fought three battles against each other. The situation has reached an alarming intensity as both these nations are nuclear armed and another conflict between the nuclear armed nations can lead to a global catastrophe. The conflict between the two nations has continued since 1947 and has even starched longer than the cold war. There have been a number of contentious issues between the two nuclear powered nations however the conflict becomes intractable because of the fact that there is a territorial dispute between the nations. According to a research a conflict between two nations can be termed as intractable when specific tangible stakes involving land territory or other tangibly divisible aspects become symbolic in the sense that they are converted into intangible aspects in terms of zero sums that make it difficult to break and divide (Khan, 2009, p.61-62). The confl ict between India and Pakistan can be termed as intractable considering the fact that the bone of contentious issues lies in the disputed territory of Kashmir in which both the nations stake their claim. India refuses to Pakistan’s claim that Kashmir is their part as the area has a majority of population that follows the Muslim religion. India on the other hand being secular nation rubbishes the latter’s claim as it believes in the accession treaty signed by Maharaja Hari Singh, the last king of Kashmir in which he agreed to accede Kashmir into India (Ganguly, Diamond & Plattner, 2007, p.52). The following section would try to deeply analyse the aspects that have led to the conflict assuming such an intractable nature that still continues to capture global attention. Analysis In order to better understand the reasons behind the intractable nature of the conflict it is very necessary to look back to the history that led to the creation of these two states. The conflict between the two nations can be traced to the days of British colonialism in which both the nations were under the British rule commonly referred to as the ‘Raj Era’. In order to consolidate their rule in the nation, the English applied the ‘Divide and Rule’ policy taking advantage of the large number of diverse religious communities in the nation by turning one community against the other. In 1947 when the British decided to grant independence, it divided the unified India into 547 princely states. In addition to this the last viceroy of British India, Lord Mountbatten also encouraged the Muslim league leader Mohammed Ali Jinnah in keeping up his demand to either accept him as the ruler of independent India or carve out a separate state of Pakistan comprising the north western states of Punjab, Baluchistan and Sind. Mahatma Gandhi, the main architect of the independence movement in India had to accept the partition plan of India following which the unified India was divided into India and Pakistan (East and West). Post partition India chose to remain secular while Pakistan declared itself as an Islamic nation bound to ‘Sharia’ laws. The partition resulted in widespread riots claiming thousands of lives across both the borders and also left thousands homeless and orphaned. Meanwhile, the focus of the issue shifted to Kashmir that was a Muslim dominated area and on the basis of this Pakistan launched an armed assault on the state that was not a part of India or Pakistan and was under the rule of Maharaja Hari Singh, the ruler of Jammu province. Unable to stand the attacks by Pakistan, Maharaja Hari Sing

The Merchant's Tale from Canterbury Tales Assignment

The Merchant's Tale from Canterbury Tales - Assignment Example His wife May, young and tender perhaps remained unsatisfied with the old man’s love making and his bristly beard is shown in contrast to her tender skin. The knight’s squire was madly in love with May and when the knight foolishly sends his wife to enquire after the health of his squire Damian, the two shake hands on a treacherous plot to trick the knight. Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales is a delightful collection of stories, that vividly paint the lives of people in 14th. century England. Considered one of his finest works, it is written in poem as well as prose form. The Merchant’s Tale is a story told by one of a group of pilgrims who are on their way to visit a shrine at Canterbury. It is an age old tale of infidelity, that is as true today as it was in Chaucer’s time. The story of an old man who seeks the pleasures of a young bride, and the young girl who in her time probably had no say in the matter of marrying a man old enough to be h er father; or did it for the wealth that she would enjoy on his death. This is true in many societies even today where fathers, lured by the glitter of gold, sell their daughters to the highest bidder without a thought for the girl’s happiness.

Why did the Korean War become an international conflict Essay

Why did the Korean War become an international conflict - Essay Example Fought as a result of disintegration of Korea into two countries due to World War II, Korean War was a result of conflict between USA and USSR as after the World War, one part was occupied by US and other was by USSR. The overall scenario leading to the Korean War is also based upon the rising tension between US and USSR. After the end of World War II though peace started to take its roots in Europe and other developed countries however, the US-USSR conflict started to worsen and both the super powers of the world reached to a point of cold war. The competing ideologies of Communism versus capitalism and dominance of US or USSR on the world political stage set the most part of the War between US supported South Korea and USSR and China supported North Korea. It was also during this war that UN was used for the first time by US as a tool to actually engage into armed conflict with any country. Why this conflict became global in nature and size, why major players including UN and US ac tually involved in this conflict will be discussed in this area. Political Turmoil and role of US and USSR Korea’s geographical location made it one of the most important regions in post-World War-II scenario and it was increasingly viewed as region which would ultimately become the point of contention between the Western powers and Communist bloc. The conditions for war were created due to keen interests of the two of the largest communist states in the world and the overall indecisiveness of US to conduct its foreign policy in the Far East region. Korea has always remained of interest for Russia and China and it was also because of this reason that USSR tried to occupy the country after World War II. Considering the increase in power of USSR, US also attempted to capture part of the country and hence Korea was divided between South and North Korea with US controlling South Korea whereas North Korea was controlled by USSR. The failure to actually hold free and fair elections increased the political tension in the region with North and South Korea forming two different sets of governments. South Korea adapted democracy whereas North Korea became a communist country. The political tension further escalated when small skirmishes started to occur on what was called 38 Parallel, the line controlled by US which was also virtually dividing both the countries from each other. The Korean War erupted in what was called the middle of the cold war between US and USSR and their bid to take control of the world. It was also increasingly seen as the war to determine which ideological framework world would adapt i.e. capitalism versus communism. The direct involvement of USSR in the war and supplying the arms to North Korea also prompted US, under the banner of UN to engage into the conflict with USSR. It is suggested that it was also the first time when US actually used UN as a foreign policy tool. The overall plan was to actually give Korea under the trusteeship of United Nations which would eventually lead it to full independence over the period of time. It was however subsequently realized that the imposition of any political will from other than Koreans may not be easy to implement and region may drift into turmoil as a result of political conflict between the super powers. It is also important to understand the overall diversity of opinions as well as groupings within Korea which could not help materialize the development of a workable plan to actually make the transition. The overall diversity of political opinions was also due to the Japanese Colonial rule which kept the country divided based upon different ideological basis. The suppression of Korean nationalist movement by the Japan also resulted into the lack of

Students Social Lifestyle and First Year Average Exam Grade Essay Example for Free

Students Social Lifestyle and First Year Average Exam Grade Essay The Relationship between a Students Social Lifestyle and First Year Average Exam Grade Alternate Hypothesis: There is a relationship between a Students social lifestyle and their first year average exam grades Null Hypothesis: There is no relationship between a Students social lifestyle and first year average exam grades Introduction The aim of my investigation is to find a significant relationship between a student’s first year academic grades and his or her social lifestyle. I can relate myself to this study as I am in the second year so it would be interesting to see if my first year grades were influenced by my social lifestyle. In this study I will consider one dependant variable, the exam grades and three independent variables which I believe are the main components of a student’s social lifestyle. These are alcohol consumption, the amount of hours on Facebook and the amount of hours of television watched. The more units of alcohol consumed, the lower a student’s grade would be I myself believe that this hypothesis is significant because alcohol is consumed normally before and during a night out. Nights out normally end at 3am in the morning. This means that the next morning the student will wake up tired with a possible hangover which leads to decreased concentration during lectures and the effects may also reduce motivation to even attend the lecture. Therefore as a result of this, the student may not work sufficiently enough to obtain a high grade. A study by Wood et al found that â€Å"A longitudinal study of 444 freshmen attending the University of Missouri found a significant cross-sectional association between heavy or problem drinking and academic problems.† (Wood et al., 1997) The more hours online on Facebook, the lower a student’s grade would be Facebook is a popular social networking website which is used by a large majority of students. Students that spend an excess amount of time on Facebook are missing out on time to study and revise. Therefore they have less time to prepare for their exams which will lead to them attaining lower grades. Kirschner and Karpinski carried out an experiment and â€Å"Results show that Facebook ® users reported having lower GPAs (Grade Point Averages) and spend fewer hours per week studying than nonusers.† (Paul A. Kirschner, Aryn C. Karpinski, 2010) The more hours of Television Watched, the lower a student’s grade would be We can presume that there is a link between the hours of television watched and a student’s grade. The reasons to this are as followed, if a student spends more time watching television they are dedicating less time to learning and revising. The students that watch less television may spend more time learning and therefore could perform better in exams obtaining a higher grade. Currently there has been no research in support of hours of television watched and a university student’s grade so this research would be a first in its field. Data and methodology The data collected has been obtained by using a survey. It contains answers from 82 second year undergraduate students from the Aston Business School. The questions were based on personal information, life style, family background, academic related information and other information. The answers that related to a student’s social lifestyle were then chosen to become variables for the research. In order to process the data, a programme called Stata which is an integrated statistical package for data analysis, will be used. It will enable the data to be viewed easily in the form of graphs, tables and numerical values. A problem that may occur in the study is the presence of heteroskedasticity. This only occurs in cross-sectional studies. We will carry out a heteroskedasticity test and if the probability shows a value quite far from 0 then heteroskedasticity is present. We will use the following methods to interpret the information: * Mean: The average number for the data * Standard Deviation: This creates a value that shows how dispersed the values are from their mean. The lower the standard deviation, the less dispersed the values are. * Min: shows the lowest value scored for the variable examined. * Max: Shows the highest value scored for the variable examined. * Correlation: Shows how strong the relationship between the two variables are. A positive correlation means that as one variable increases, so does the other. A negative correlation means as one variable decreases, the other increases. Zero correlation means that the variables have no effect on each other. I am looking for negative correlations in my study which will be portrayed as a negative coefficient value * Regression analysis – Shows how the value of the dependant variable changes as one independent variable is varied and the others remain fixed. * P value – A means to test the hypothesis, at the significance level 5%, if the P value is equal to or lower than 0.05, the null hypothesis is rejected * R2 – Value used to see how much percentage the dependent variable is explained by the independent variable. The more units of alcohol consumed, the lower a student’s first year average grade would be Table 2 shows that there is a positive correlation of 0.0947 between the students grade and alcohol consumption. This suggests that the students that consumed more alcohol scored higher grades. However, this data could be inaccurate because of possible anomalies. Graph 1 Graph 1 shows a scatter graph of average score for first year against units of alcohol consumed per week. A linear trend line has been added to display the positive correlation that exists between the two variables. It can be argued that the line is only slightly angled which portrays a weak positive correlation. It can also be seen that there is a large concentration where there has been little alcohol consumed but the grades vary enormously. The highest grade was 85. One of the students that achieved this drank 0 units a week, however the other that achieved it drank 14 units a week which is much larger than the mean of 6.71 units a week. A regression analysis was then carried out. Table 3 shows the statistical results obtained. The coefficient is 0.1057496, holding all other variables constant, means for every increase in unit of alcohol, there was a 0.1057496 increase in grades. The R2 shows a value of 0.009 which means only 0.9% of the students grades are explained by the units of alcohol consumption. Further the P-Value is larger than 0.05 at the 5% significance level which means the null hypothesis is accepted. Finally a heteroskedasticity test showed the value of 0.9975 which is larger than 0 suggesting that the relationship is heteroskedastic. It is generally believed that an increase in alcohol consumption would have led to reduced grades because of the effects alcohol has on your body such as reduced concentration. However, the results show a weak positive correlation which suggests that as alcohol consumption increased, grades also increased. These results could be conclusive to Aston Business Students as they all have a similar amount of work and follow similar timetables. In other courses, drinking the same amounts of alcohol may have a different effect on grades depending on how difficult the course is whether the course is exam dominated or coursework dominated. The more hours online on Facebook, the lower a student’s average grade would be Referring back to table 2, the correlation between the hours online on Facebook and a student grade is 0.1291. This also doesn’t conform to the hypothesis as it suggests that the more hours online on Facebook, the higher a student’s average grade would be. Graph 2 Here we can see clearly a positive correlation between the two variables. As hours online on Facebook rises, so do the students grades. However the anomaly which is at (75,80) could have an effect on the trend line causing it to become inaccurate. There is a large concentration of grades around 0 hours. However the grades vary a lot at this area. Table 4 shows the results of the regression analysis carried out on Stata. The coefficient was 0.1333656, holding all other variables constant. This implies that for every hour online on Facebook, there is a 0.1333656 increase in the average score of a student’s first year grades. The R2 value shows that 1.67% of the student’s grades are explained by the hours they spend online on Facebook. This again is small figure so there is a possibility that there is no real relationship between these two variables. The P-Value of 0.248 is larger than 0.05 at a 5% significance value which implies the null hypothesis should be accepted. The heteroskedasticity test showed a value of 0.4790 which is further than two showing that the relationship is heteroskedastic. In theory, the more hours online on Facebook would lead to reduced grades as it provides a distraction for revision and learning. However some students may use Facebook for work purposes such as an online study group. Roblyer et al stated that Facebook has â€Å"the potential to become a valuable resource to support their (students) educational communications and collaborations with faculty.† (Roblyer et al 2010). This shows that students are able to communicate with lectures via Facebook so may be able to get help on topics they are struggling with. This will show an increase in grades. Another reason for the results found is that Facebook allows students to take a break from their work leaving them feeling motivated to return to their work after they have rested so maybe a couple of hours on Facebook is beneficial. Overall the theory and the results do not conform. The null hypothesis will have to be accepted, however on a larger population, theory and results may conform. The more hours of Television Watched, the lower a student’s grade would be Referring back to table 2 shows that the coefficient between these two variables is -0.0569. This portrays a negative relationship meaning that as the hours of television watched are increased, the student’s average grade decreases. Graph 3 Graph 3 shows the relationship between the two variables and the trend line confirms a downward trend. It could be said that there are anomalies in this data at 20 hours of television watched, however 20 hours is possible and three people have reported to have watched 20 hours so in this case, it is justified as valid data. The samples are very spread out thought it can be viewed that a lot of students watch zero hours of television yet their grades varied from 44% to 85%. Similar results can be seen at 10 hours of television viewed per week. This evidence implies that there is no difference between hours of Television watched and the student’s first year average score. Regression analysis results for the two variables are displayed on table 5. The correlation coefficient shows a value of -0.1073295. This shows that there is a 0.1073295 decrease in a student’s average grade for every hour of television watched holding all other variables constant. The P-Value and R2 both show that there is little relationship between the variables. The P-Value is 0.612 which is much larger than 0.05 at the 5% significance level. This means that the null hypothesis is accepted. The R2 is 0.0032 which means that only 0.32% of students grade are explained by hours of television watched. Watching television in my view will reduce a student’s grades as, like Facebook, it provides a distraction towards learning and revision. Also most programmes are an hour long and this is a significant amount of time not to learn or revise particularly if the student watches 2 or 3 programmes in a row. However, MacLean and Roderick (1968) believe that television is â€Å" a new facility through which the teacher can better achieve traditional educational aims.† In university, lecturers can record their lectures and put them on the internet to be viewed anytime, if this is counted as a form of online TV then watching these type of programmes will be educational and may help the student to attain better grades. Conclusion With all the results obtained and analysed and after considering the theory behind the relationship between the variables, it can be concluded that only one of the three sub hypotheses could be confirmed. The first sub hypothesis aimed to find a relationship between a student’s average first year grade and the amount of alcohol consumed, however, due to a positive correlation it was concluded that, in this study, as alcohol consumption increased, so did the students grade. The next sub hypothesis aimed to find a relationship between a student’s average first year grade and the amount of hours on Facebook per week a student used. Again a positive correlation showed that, in this study, the more hours on Facebook, the higher a student’s average first year grade was. The last sub hypothesis aimed to find a relationship between hours of television watched per week and a student’s average grade. The positive correlation confirmed the relationship that the more hours of television watched, the lower a student’s average first year grade was. It must be taken into account that there may have been external factors also affecting the student’s grade that weren’t examined in this research. There were some problems in the data provided that may have caused inaccuracies in the studies. Firstly, the data was collected by means of a survey with multiple questions asked regarding many topics of the student’s life. A problem with using surveys is that people may lack the motivation to fill out the survey correctly and truthfully. Further, if a student doesn’t understand the question, they may just guess the answer which leads to inaccurate results. It is highly doubtful that a student would accurately measure his/hers unit of alcohol consumption nor would they time the hours they are on Facebook or hours watching television. It could be argued that all the data collected is based on approximation rather than accuracy and this reduces the validity of the research. Next, the sample size which consists of 82 people is too small to represent an entire population of students. Also, all the students used were business students. This might have had an effect on the grades achieved for the year and the amount of time the student could use for socializing. For other courses, it could be easier to achieve a higher grade with the same amount of alcohol drunk, time on Facebook and television watched. Finally, it was only students from Aston University who were surveyed which means students from other universities were not taken into account of. This questions the validity of this study and whether we can generalize it to an entire population. In my opinion, a much larger sample is needed to show a more accurate result. Too add to this, another survey should be conducted with a larger population and the only questions that should be asked are the ones that relate specifically to the variables in the hypothesis. This study allowed me to apply the statistical and analytical skills learnt in the econometrics module. I learnt how to use software to help provide statistics to achieve a conclusion to my hypothesis and sub-hypothesis. The study in my opinion was not a success due to the lack of data received. In this study, my hypothesis was not proven so I must accept the null hypothesis: There is no relationship between a Students social lifestyle and first year exam grades. However I believe if I could redo the study with a much larger sample size and only specific questions related to my variables, then the results would confirm my hypothesis. References Kirschner, P.A, Karpinski, A.C, 2010. Facebook ® and academic performance. Computers in Human Behaviour, [Online]. Volume 26 issue 6, 1237-1245. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0747563210000646[Accessed 01 December 2011]. Wood, P.K et al, 1997. Predicting Academic Problems in College from Freshman Alcohol Involvement.Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, [Online]. Volume 58 issue 2, 200-210. Available at:http://www.jsad.com/jsad/article/Predicting_Academic_Problems_in_College_from_Freshman_Alcohol_Involvement/406.html[Accessed 02 December 2011]. Freemantle, N et al, 1993. Brief interventions and alcohol use. Quality in Health Care, [Online]. Volume 2 issue 4, 267-273. Available at: http://qualitysafety.bmj.com/content/2/4/267.full.pdf [Accessed 02 December 2011]. Roblyer, M.D et al, 2010. Findings on Facebook in higher education: A comparison of college faculty and student uses and perceptions of social networking sites. The Internet and Higher Education, [Online]. 13/3, 134/140. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1096751610000278#aff1 [Accessed 03 December 2011].

Hiv Aids In Nigeria Health And Social Care Essay

Hiv Aids In Nigeria Health And Social Care Essay Nigeria, with a population of 154.7 million (World Bank, 2009) is the most populous country in Africa and represents about 47% of the West African population (World Bank, 2010). The country is divided into six geo-political zones; North-West, North-East and North-Central as well as South-West, South-East and South-South (World Bank, 2010). Being the biggest oil exporter in Africa and with the largest natural gas reserves in the continent (World Bank, 2010), one would think that (economically and in terms of human development) the country would be up in the ladder with the prosperous countries of the world. But one would be wrong. The country is classified as lower middle income with a GNI per capita, Atlas method of $1,170 (World Bank, 2009). The country ranks 158 out a possible 182 countries on the human development index table (UNDP, 2009). Life expectancy at birth is 48 years for men and 50 years for women (WHO, 2009), adult literacy rate is 60% (World Bank, 2008), urban population is 46% (World Bank, 2009) which indicates that the majority live in rural areas, while the total fertility rate (per woman) is 5.5 (WHO, 2009). In terms of health indicators, the country does not fare any better. With an infant mortality rate of 85.5 per 1000 live births, a maternal mortality ratio of 1,100 per 100,000 live births and an under 5 mortality rate of 186 per 1000 live births (regional average- 142 per 1000 live births) (WHO, 2008), it will be safe to say that the country can and should do better. Table 1 (World Bank, 2009) is an overview of quick facts on Nigeria Year 2009 Population, Total (millions) 154.7 Population growth (annual %) 2.3 GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US $) 1,170 Life expectancy at birth, total (years) 47.9 Mortality rate, infants (per 1000 live births) 85.8 Contraceptive prevalence (% of women ages 15-49) 15 Table 1. Source: World Bank: World Development Indicators, Nigeria: Quick facts, 2009 With economic and social indices poor in the worlds poorest countries, world leaders met in September 2000 under the canopy of the United Nations to set a roadmap to reduce extreme poverty with the aim of improving human and economic development through a global partnership (UN millennium declaration, 2000). Thus eight goals with 21 targets and 60 measurable indicators were set (UN, 2000). Focussing on all the millennium development goals (MDGs) is beyond the scope of this paper. This paper aims to focus on one health problem that is a priority of the Nigerian nation. Therefore in the next few pages, you will be taken on a journey on the burden of the Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (HIV/AIDS) in Nigeria, its current status and recent trends, issues of equity and spread in relation to income, gender and location (residence), national and sub-national policies to address the problems posed by HIV/AIDS, challenges to addressing these problems as well as recommendations for an improved strategic response. GENERAL BACKGROUND/Current status and recent trends HIV was first discovered in Nigeria in 1986 (DHS, 2008). By 1991, the prevalence rate was reported as 1.8% (DHS, 2008). The prevalence rate then progressively rose to 4.5% in 1996 and then 5.5% in 2001 (National HIV/AIDS prevention plan, 2007-9). However the prevalence rate dropped to 5% in 2003 and 4.4% in 2005 (National HIV/AIDS prevention plan, 2007-9). Notwithstanding the drop and as a consequence of Nigerias huge population, the disease has continued to pile an economic and health misery on the country as 2.86 million people had been infected by 2005 (IBBSS, 2008). Currently, the HIV prevalence rate is 4.6% (NACA, 2009). Estimated number of people living with HIV/AIDS is 2.98 million, the annual HIV positive births is 56,681, while annual AIDS deaths is 192,000 with females bearing more of the death burden at 105,822 deaths to 86,178 deaths for males (NACA, 2009). The impact of the disease on children is particularly worrisome as evidenced by the annual HIV positive births. It gets worse. According to data released by the Federal Ministry of Health in 2009, 2,175,760 children have been orphaned due to factors relating to HIV/AIDS (FOMH, 2009). Females constitute almost three-fifths (58.3%) of the infected persons in Nigeria (National HIV response Analysis, 2009). Also worthy of mention is the fact that young adults are disproportionately affected with a sero-prevalence of 5.6% in the 25-29 age-group, the highest of any age group (National HIV response Analysis, 2009). As this is part of the productive age group of any country (UNAIDS, 2008), the impact on socio economic development can only be imagined. The millennium development goal 6, target 6 AB is to halt by 2010 and begin to reverse by 2015 the spread of HIV/AIDS and to achieve universal access to treatment for all those who need it by 2010 (UNDP, 2010). The indicators to measure these include: HIV prevalence among pregnant women aged 15-24, condom use at last high risk sex, proportion of population aged 15-24 with comprehensive knowledge of HIV/AIDS, ratio of school attendance of orphans to non orphans and the proportion of population with advanced HIV with access to antiretroviral therapy (ART) (UNDP, 2010). The demographic health survey (DHS) implemented by the Nigerian population commission (NPC) and supported and funded by PEPFAR, USAID and UNFPA was carried out in 2008 (DHS, 2008). It showed that 23% of women and 36% of men in Nigeria have what is a comprehensive knowledge of HIV/AIDS (DHS, 2008). Comprehensive knowledge is considered to be the knowledge that condom use and faithfulness to one partner can prevent HIV infection, knowing that a healthy appearance does not rule out HIV and the rejection of two commonest myths that HIV can be transmitted through voodoo or mosquito bites (DHS, 2008). Using the above criteria as the definition of comprehensive knowledge is a bit thin. A better term would be basic knowledge as the popular acronym ABC (abstinence, be faithful and condom use) constitutes the basics of HIV prevention. The percentage of adults and children with advanced HIV with access to treatment is 32% (DHS, 2008). As the target is universal access to treatment, this shows c learly that Nigeria is lagging behind on treatment despite its preponderance over prevention (Idoko, 2010). The prevalence of HIV among pregnant women between ages 15 and 24 in Nigeria has decreased from 5.8% in 2001 and 2002 to 5.0% in 2003 and 2004 and has steadied at 4.3% in 2005 through 2007 (NACA, ME unit, 2007). The percentage of the population who used condom at last high risk sex has markedly increased from 43.9% in 2003 to 63.8% in 2007 (NACA, ME unit, 2007) while the Federal Ministry of Health reported in 2009 that the number of children orphaned by AIDS increased from 1.97 million in 2007 to 2.18 million in 2009. The ratio of school attendance of orphans to non orphans is said to be 0.86:1 (FMOH, 2009). Prevention of mother to child transmission (PMTCT) of HIV constitutes a huge gap in HIV prevention in Nigeria (Idoko, 2010). With only 12.5% of pregnant women having access to PMTCT services, Nigeria represents 30% of the global gap of PMTCT of HIV (Idoko. 2010). The progress Nigeria has made in her fight against HIV/AIDS is illustrated in table 2 which compares estimates and data compiled by NACA from 2000 through 2007. It shows a mixed bag of results as the improvements made have either been slow or dawdling (Mid- point assessment, 2010). Target 7: Have halted and begun to reverse the spread of HIVAIDS (UN Millennium Declaration, 2000) Indicators 1990 2000*a 2001 2002*b 2003 2004*c 2005 2006*d 2007*d 2008 2015 Progress towards target HIV prevalence among 15-24 year old pregnant women (%) 5.4 5.8 5.8 5.0 5.0 4.3 4.3 4.3 4.2 To be halted Improving but slowly % of young people aged 15-24 who both correctly identify ways to preventing the sexual transmission of HIV and who reject major misconceptions about HIV transmission 18.3 18.3 25.9 25.9 25.9 NA 100 Improving but slowly % of young people aged 15-24 reporting the use of a condom during sexual intercourse with a non regular sexual partner 43.9 43.9 63.8 63.8 63.8 NA 100 Improving Ratio of school attendance of orphans to school attendance of non orphans aged 10-14 years NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 1.2 Number of children orphaned by AIDS (millions) 1.8 1.97 1.97 1.97 1.97 worsening A, b, c, d are for 1999, 2001, 2003, 2005. NA- not available Table 2. Source: MDG report, 2010 EQUITY Empowering women and girls has a plethora of positive effects on all MDGs (UNDP, 2010). HIV/AIDS is no exception. Despite the fact that HIV/AIDS knows no gender, clear disparities are visible in the way men and women with HIV/AIDS are responded to and cared for (Mbonu, et al, 2010). The demographic health survey (DHS) carried out in 2008 revealed disparities based on gender, ethnicity, location and income quintile in the knowledge of HIV/AIDS, attitudes towards HIV/AIDS and coverage of testing (DHS, 2008). Table 3 (DHS, 2008) shows a variation in the knowledge of HIV/AIDS according to age, residence, ethnicity, level of education and income (DHS, 2008). Of note is the trend that reveals that HIV awareness while almost universal in urban areas (98% and 95% among men and women respectively), is lower among rural men and women at 91% and 84% respectively (DHS, 2008). Awareness of HIV/AIDS was also found to be lower in the Northern region compared to the South, being lowest in women of North-central origin (76%) and men of North-eastern origin (88%)(DHS, 2008). Background characteristics Women Men Age in years 15-24 87.1 91.4 15-19 85.3 88.3 20-24 89.1 94.8 25-29 89.8 94.6 30-39 89.4 94.7 40-49 87.2 94.4 Marital Status Never married 92.9 93.4 Ever had sex 96.5 98.0 Never had sex 90.0 89.0 Married/living together 86.4 93.6 Divorced/separated/widowed 91.3 92.0 Residence Urban 95.3 97.9 Rural 84.3 90.8 Zone North central 75.9 90.7 North east 81.4 87.8 North west 87.8 90.9 South east 97.1 96.4 South South 92.0 96.1 South west 93.4 97.8 Education No education 76.6 80.7 Primary 90.2 92.4 Secondary 96.0 97.1 More than secondary 99.3 99.7 Wealth quintile Lowest 75.5 83.5 Second 81.7 89.9 Middle 88.8 93.8 Fourth 94.5 97.0 Highest 97.6 98.9 Table 3. Source: Nigeria DHS, 2008 In Nigeria, there are clear differences in the proportion of the population with the knowledge of preventive measures of HIV by age, gender, ethnicity and income quintile (DHS, 2008). Overall women were found to be more knowledgeable in urban areas than in rural areas (DHS, 2008). The same trend was also found to apply for men. Most worrying is the fact that those in the lowest wealth quintile have a rather poor knowledge of HIV prevention measures with only 31.3% of women and 53.2% of men knowing that using condoms at every sexual encounter can protect them from contracting HIV (DHS, 2008). The DHS, 2008 also found that respondents in urban areas are more likely to have a comprehensive knowledge of HIV/AIDS compared to rural areas (DHS, 2008). This proportion rises with an increasing level of education and income among both men and women (DHS, 2008). The DHS, 2008 exposed a stratum of inequities in terms of coverage of HIV testing services (DHS, 2008). Living in urban areas increases ones chances of knowing where to test for HIV with 66% of women and 78% of men knowing where to test for HIV compared to 39% for women and 57% for men in rural areas (DHS, 2008). Zonal disparities are also evident as women and men in the North-east are least likely to know where to test for HIV (27% for women and 54% for men) (DHS, 2008). Worryingly however, of the people who were tested for HIV in the 12 months preceding the survey, only 7% of men and 7% of women came back for the results (DHS, 2008). Further studies might be required to find out why this is the case. As stated earlier in this paper, there is a huge gap in PMTCT services in Nigeria. The DHS, 2008 made known that only 24% of women who gave birth in the 2 years preceding the DHS received HIV counselling (DHS, 2008). Only 16% were offered and accepted HIV tests during ANC and received the results (DHS, 2008) while only 13% were counselled, offered and accepted HIV tests and received the results. The women most likely to fall in the latter group were those who live in urban areas (35%), those from the south east ethnic origin (35%) and those with more than secondary education (54%) (DHS, 2008). All of these imply that the HIV/AIDS challenge in Nigeria, as well the response to these challenges are in more ways than one determined by equity issues in relation to gender, poverty and location/residence. NATIONAL AND SUB NATIONAL POLICIES AND STRATEGIES After the HIV was first reported in Nigeria in 1986 (National HIV response analysis, 2009), the response was essentially health sector oriented to limit its spread (National HIV response analysis, 2009). However with the increasing spread of the epidemic and the advent of democracy in 1999, the focus shifted from a health sector based response to a multi-sectoral one (Country progress report, 2010). This led to the establishment of the National Action Committee on HIV/AIDS to coordinate the multi-sectoral response (National HIV response analysis, 2009). To further strengthen its central coordinating role and the national response, this committee was transformed in 2007 by an act of the national assembly into full agency status, reporting directly to the presidency (National HIV response analysis, 2009). It became the National agency for the control of HIV/AIDS (NACA). At the sub-national level, the coordination is done at each of the 36 states by the state action committee on HIV/AIDS (SACA) and at each of the 774 local governments by the local government action committee on HIV/AIDS (LACA) (National HIV response analysis, 2009). The plan was for the SACAs (just as NACA) to transform into full agencies to strengthen their contribution to the national response (NACA, 2009). However, only 20 states have transformed into full agencies (National response analysis, 2009). Weak political commitment as well as a lack of ownership at the state level has however continued to be identified as limiting factors for national HIV response (Idoko, 2009). Even the state committees that have transformed into full agencies have had problems ranging from poor funding to poor capacity with most of them working without constituted boards (Idoko, 2009). NACA with the collaboration of relevant stakeholders developed an interim action plan in 2001, the HIV/AIDS emergency action plan (HEAP), a plan that focussed mainly on prevention, care and support (Country progress report, 2010). The need for a more comprehensive plan that includes treatment led to the development of the National strategic framework (NSF) in 2005. The NSF is the common framework for HIV/AIDS response in Nigeria (National HIV response analysis, 2009). All states also have state strategic plans (SSPs) sourced from the NSF and taking into account their peculiarities (Country progress report, 2007). Nigeria developed her roadmap for universal access to HIV prevention, treatment, care and support in 2006 (Country progress report, 2010). This has been incorporated into the NSF and SSPs (Country progress report, 2010). The country has also developed key policy documents which factored in the development of the NSF including the National Workplace Policy on HIV/AIDS in 2005 to guide HIV programs in the workplace, the National Reproductive Health Policy, the National Gender Policy that ensures gender mainstreaming in the national response, the National Policy on Orphans and Vulnerable children (OVC), to guide OVC activities in the national plan, the National Policy on Injection Safety and Healthcare waste management as well as the National Prevention Plan and National HIV/AIDS Behaviour Change Communication (BCC) strategy to promote prevention and behavioural change activities (Country progress report, 2010). With NACA as the central coordinating body, the NSF as the common strategic framework, there was the need to have a harmonized Monitoring and Evaluation (ME) framework in line with the three ones principle (UNAIDS, 2004). This berthed the Nigerian National Response Information Management System (NNRIMS) with the development of the National ME operational plan, 2007-2010 (National HIV response analysis, 2009). Funding for HIV/AIDS programs in Nigeria is both internal and external (Country progress report, 2008). Internal funding is from the national, state and local government budgets, which has substantially increased as a result of the debt relief gain (DRG). There is also some funding from the private sector. However, bureaucratic bottlenecks in the release of funds, continues to be identified as one of the key problems militating against the response performance at state and local government levels (Idoko, 2009). Figure 1 (National response analysis, 2009) shows the organogram, the institutional structural design of the countrys national response and how it links with sub-national and other non state actors. NACA is at the apex of the response architecture and from this vantage point provides political, program and technical leadership while linking with state and non state actors (National HIV response analysis, 2009). In the same fashion, state and local responses are led by SACAs and LACAs. Together these bodies interface with line ministries, the private sector, civil and human rights groups including faith based organisations and local and international development partners (National HIV response analysis, 2009). NACA STATE ACTORS NON-STATE ACTORS STATES HEALTH SECTOR, LINE MINISTRIES PRIVATE SECTOR LOCALINT. DEVELOPMENT PARTNERS CSOs CONSTITUENTS AND COMMUNITIES CONSTITUENTS AND COMMUNITIES COMMUNITIES SACAs, LACAs, LINE MINISTRIES CSO, PRIVATE SECTOR, DEVELOPMENT PARTNERS COMMUNITIES AND CONSTITUENTS COMMUNITIES AND CONSTITUENTS Figure 1. (Source: National HIV Response Analysis, 2009) In addition to the entrenchment of the three ones principle, the development of the National Strategic Framework and the correct implementation of all other policy documents by NACA, other specific strategies to achieving Goal 6 of the MDGs in relation to HIV/AIDS in Nigeria include the local production of condoms and ARVs to drive down cost, increasing the number of HCT and ART sites as well as making them free and accessible, providing social security for AIDS orphans and children with HIV/AIDS, strengthening BCC programs, broadening prevention efforts in line with the National prevention plan, getting the MOHs to dedicate more funds to HIV/AIDS at the state and local levels, increased advocacy to states and LGs to drive SACAs and LACAs, as well as support for research on HIV/AIDS (MDG Mid-point Assessment, 2000-7). CHALLENGES While significant progress has been recorded as earlier detailed, significant challenges also exist (National HIV response analysis, 2009). There is an imbalance in the attention given to prevention as opposed to treatment as the focus has been more on treatment than prevention (Shehu, 2007). This is a surprising misplacement of priorities since at least 95% of Nigerians are HIV negative thus requiring concrete preventive measures to make them remain so (Shehu, 2007). By 2007, only 3% of health facilities in Nigeria provided HCT services (WHO, UNAIDS UNICEF, 2008). In 2008, it was estimated that there was only one HCT facility to 80,000 Nigerians (WHO, UNAIDS UNICEF, 2009). This might be related to suggestions that facilities providing HIV testing in Nigeria do not follow international standards about ethics and confidentiality (Physicians for Human Rights, 2006). Also, condom distribution and promotion has been hampered by poor resources and political interference (AVERT, 2010). B etween 2000 and 2005, the average number of condoms distributed in Nigeria by donors was approximately 5.9 per man per year (UNFPA, 2005) while in a 2002 survey, only 25% of health facilities had any condoms (Human Rights Watch, 2004). In 2006, the Advertising Practitioners Council of Nigeria (APCON) started to restrict condom advertisements that might encourage indecency (UN Integrated Regional Information Networks, 2006). Though APCON may have softened her stand, the view that condom advertisements promote indecency has to be balanced with the clear dangers posed by unprotected sex as a main driver of the spread of HIV/AIDS. Other challenges include the inadequate and inequitable distribution of drugs, the high prevalence of stigma and discrimination, violation of the human rights of people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA), poor funding and low capacity at all levels but especially at the sub-national levels, inadequate monitoring of the quality of intervention, insufficient and inadequate responsive data bases, challenges in program coordination (National HIV response analysis, 2009) as well as the slow involvement of civil society and private sector groups in HIV/AIDS planning and budgeting (Country Midpoint assessment, 2000-7). Poor accessibility and uptake of intervention services is a major problem affecting the national response (Coker, 2009). An example of that is in PMTCT (Coker, 2009). The National AIDS and STD control program (NASCP) reported uptake of PMTCT nationally as 11% as of July 2009 (Coker, 2009). While there were 908 functional HCT sites scattered across the country as at 2007 (NACA, 2007), there appears to be little awareness of the location of these sites (DHS, 2008), hence poor access especially at the community and hard to reach areas (National HIV response analysis, 2009). The joint United Nations program on HIV/AIDS identified four major challenges of the HIV/AIDS response in Nigeria (UNAIDS, 2009). They include but not limited to: challenges due to empowerment of National leadership and ownership, challenges of alignment and harmonization, reform challenges for a more multi-sectoral response, and challenges with accountability and oversight (Country Midpoint assessment, 2000-7). NACAs organisational effectiveness is still considerably weak with capacity constraints overwhelming at state and local government levels (National HIV response analysis, 2009). There also is a disparity in programs and coordination systems at all levels due to poor dissemination and use of policy instruments (National HIN response analysis, 2009). In terms of ownership and alignment, there is an excessive fragmentation of donor activities, poor collaboration between NACA-donor while donor approaches are not always aligned with national priorities thereby undermining ownershi p (National HIV response analysis, 2009). This may be due to the fact that the majority of funding for HIV programs is donor driven (HERFON, 2007). For instance, Nigeria contributes an only an estimated 5% of the funds for antiretroviral therapy programmes (HERFON, 2007). While this may be due to a country desire to concentrate more and rightly so on prevention, it may also explain why there is a tilt towards treatment. The 2010 country progress report while acknowledging the successes and achievements of the HIV/AIDS response in Nigeria also identified key challenges that needed to be addressed. They include: incommensurate funding of the prevention, treatment, care and support programs compared to the complexity of the epidemic, overdependence on donor support, weak political and financial support especially at states and local governments, the lack of a National HIV/AIDS research agenda, poor coverage and quality of PMTCT, limited knowledge of the drivers of the epidemic, low risk perception at policy making and community levels, inadequate supportive legislation to guide and boost the national and state response, inadequate implementation of the National ME system, the overwhelming focus on intervention monitoring rather than impact evaluation, as well as poverty and gender equality (Country progress report, 2010). Above all, there is the challenge of maintaining current levels and scaling up a sustainable HIV/AIDS response that will tackle demand challenges like increasing new infections and declining livelihoods due to poverty, and supply challenges like inadequate infrastructure, low motivation of health workers and brain drain, governance challenges like poor health, communications and power infrastructure, inadequate health financing, inadequate logistics and procurement as well as declining human resources (Ogunlayi, et al, 2007). The requirement for this is a health systems strengthening approach with a target of improving the health supply chain efficiency and effectiveness, training more people with adequate incentives to man and manage those systems, developing policies that will support national and sub-national sustainability plans including the provision of physical infrastructure as well as mobilizing a responsible, responsive and equitable health financing (National HIV response analysis, 2009). CONCLUSIONS That Nigeria has made positive strides in her fight against HIV/AIDS is not in doubt. What is in doubt is if the current levels can be maintained and scaled up. It is instructive that of the 7 point agenda for action at the inception of the current political leadership, there was no health component. This paper will bring to the front burner the need for greater political commitment from the top on health matters in general and the HIV/AIDS issue in particular. As the evidence in this paper has shown, the impact of HIV/AIDS has been enormous particularly on women and children. While gender has been mainstreamed into the national response in Nigeria (National response analysis, 2009), there is clearly still a lot more to be done. It is particularly sad that Nigeria records annual HIV-positive births of 56,681. There is the need for all stakeholders to speak with one voice and declare this trend as unacceptable. And indeed it is. It should be unacceptable for pure and innocent neonates, infants and children to bear the brunt of the epidemic in a scale as seen in Nigeria. This paper strongly advocates the scale up of both the access and quality of all HIV/AIDS services including but not limited to HCT, PMTCT as well as other prevention, treatment, care and support services and especially for those disadvantaged due to location, income or gender. This paper will bring to the fore the poor state of the response at the state and local government levels. There is the need to strengthen technical, financial and management capacity not just at NACA but at the SACAs and LACAs (National HIV response analysis, 2009). There is a greater need for Prevention programs to be at the heart of the HIV/AIDS response. This need is reinforced (as shown in page 5) by the declining difference in the proportion of people with an awareness of HIV/AIDS compared to those with a comprehensive knowledge of HIV/AIDS (DHS, 2008). There is a further decline in the proportion of the latter group with the awareness of where to get tested (DHS, 2008). While treatment, care and support programs are indispensable, there is the need for a scale up of prevention programs to cater to the over 95% of the population that are currently HIV negative. While donors should be praised for the huge financial and human resources they have committed to the HIV/AIDS response, there is the need for country ownership as well as the alignment and harmonization of donor priorities in line with country plans and strategies. Health systems strengthening needs to be accelerated for a health systems response that is based on improved infrastructure for an integrated package of care, a functional forecasting system based on verified data, built capacity of human resources, adequate health financing and a strong leadership (Country progress report, 2010). Finally, the MDGs and its targets for HIV/AIDS should not be seen as a destination but a process. A process that emphasizes urgency, quality and equity, and involves the development of a comprehensive package of prevention, treatment, care and support relevant to the country (UNAIDS, 2006).

Urban Planning Strategies in Cairo

Urban Planning Strategies in Cairo Cairo is the Egyptian capital, the largest city in Africa. It is located in the Nile Delta, 14 kilometers south of the Nile River. The most area of the city is in the east of the river and it is 120 kilometers east of the Suez Canal. The urban area is about 214 square kilometers. Great Cairo included Helwan, Maadi, Nasser, Aslamm, Ramadan City, October 6 and other satellite towns with a total area of 1200 square kilometers. The population of those satellite towns is about fifth of the countrys total. It is standing for both financial centre and transportation hub. The city is the countrys largest business and financial center. Manufacturing output value is nearly half of the country. Textile industry is the most important sector. Raw cotton material is particularly well-developed but also wool, silk, hemp textile industry. And they are followed by the food, sugar, cigarettes, cement and household appliances. There are also included traditional leather tanning, show-making, as well as gold, silver ornaments and other handicrafts. The satellite town, Helena which is 25 kilometers away from south of the city, focus on heavy industry in order to iron and steel industry. It has developed coking, machinery, automobile, motorcycle, oil and chemical sectors. Cairo gathered the national third of the trading companies and nearly a quarter of the banking, commercial and various service industries flourish. Tourism is an important part of the city economy, as directly or indirectly employed about 40 million. It also stands for an important transport hub. The nations major rail ways and roads meet at this intersection, connected Alexandria, Port Said, Ismailia, Suez, Aswan and other major cities. The Nile to the west is the major way connected through Upper and Lower Egypt. Canal Ismailia which has access to Canal Suez is just on the west side of Nile. Eastern suburb of Heliopolis has a modern international airport, the provision of Article 30 domestic and international routes. There are 13 elevated railways, highway overpasses, and three large pedestrian bridges in the city. The bridge in the 6th Oct is more than 10 kilometer. From the foregoing, Cairo is a city is the Egyptian center of economic, transportation and politic. The development clear influences the country. Today, many developing countries are faced with problem of urbanization. As the first open country in the Arabian world, Cairo plays a crucial role in urbanization which cannot be ignored. Existing urban planning strategies The general master plan which established in 70s in to create a super agglomeration or poly-nuclear City to accommodate large population growth caused by rural-urban migration. In each individual satellite town, it expected to be self sufficient which included residential, commercial and entertainment development in order to reduce the need for commuting. Ring road, metro and other transportation system should be built in order to serve expanding settlements. In agriculture aspect, it encourages development to spread to the east and west of the city centre, into desert land, to avoid building on valuable nutrient-rich arable land in the Nile Delta. In Figure ii, it shows the original proposal of expansion gesture at west and east direction. Unfortunately, the master plan has failed. The plan doesnt have significant effect on the urban development. Its mostly because of naà ¯ve urbanization which didnt consider some basic social issues well. First, the master plan covered large areas; however, the infrastructural development fell behind. Second, the new satellite town failed to attract population. (Table 1)The target of population cannot be carried out and there are not enough employment opportunities in some of development areas. Feedback from Interview Peoples points of view are always considered as the most powerful evidence. Before starting deep research of the project, an interview has been taken by M. Shaker in Cairo. Therefore, the public opinions have been investigated and analyzed. The interview is focusing on their residence history, the location they aspire to live in and their opinions about the downtown area. The population of downtown is shrinking sharply and the reason why people dont want to live in the downtown area is basically showed in the pie chart. Quality of living and traffic condition seem to be concerned mostly. Also, in the bar chart, it clearly shows that working close to residents is the most important factor for job selection. To sum it up, people intended to move out of the downtown for better housing and living environment. They also want the new settlement to provide job opportunities so that they can work close to their residence. pAs the analysis of interview information, the main problems and contradictions come out in two aspects: one is about the living quality and the housing status with large number of rural population, and another is about traffic problems with the developments of satellite towns. Living Quality The population of Cairo increased sharply from 1970 to 5.9 million, up to 8.7 million to 1980. In 1996, it reaches 14.6 million which is a quarter of this countrys. However, Cairos population is still growing at a rate of 0.35 million per year. The population is too large to enormous pressure on Cairo. (CAPMAS 1997) Firstly, there are the food shortages. Cairo consumed half of the total imports of the country; any city in the world cannot be compared in this point. Import food prices keep rising, although the government spends huge sums of money for food subsidies, the result is not pleasing. Secondly, it caused the residents of Cairo declining standard of living. From 1985 to 1989, the general consumer price almost increased double, and it keeps increasing. Third, the large number of people ran into the city cause a serious shortage of rural labor force and unemployment to the citizens. In 1961, the national unemployment rate was 4.7%, Cairo unemployment rate was 7.5%. In 1970, the national unemployment rate was 2%, Cairo was 7.6%. Meanwhile, the young population is another challenge in Cairo, According to statistics, 1988 the population aged 0 to 14 accounted for 40%. The large number of young people will put a huge pressure on Cairo social and economic development in the future. What is the reason for population expansion in Cairo? It has the heavy urban function. The density of its urban functions is highest in Africa. It loads half of the industry in the country and it has to main international and domestic trade activities. In addition, it has education institute such as Al-Azhar University, Cairo University and American University. As the Governments road construction, housing, water, electricity and other public facilities placed in Cairo, which determines the governments majority of investments are staying in the area. Therefore, it provided substantial employment opportunities in this area, on the other hand, small towns and rural areas infrastructure construction will be lack of funds. It so that expand the gap between urban and rural areas. The contrast cause rural youth do not want to go home after graduation. In the other hand, basically, there are three types of housing in Cairo: A. Legitimate housing. It was divided into three types: 1. Countries to rent and sell or provide housing for the national staff. 2. Cooperative housing (Cooperative). 3. Private housing. B. Illegal construction. Since 1960, annual housing construction accounted for 70% of urban housing about 60000 units of housing annually, is mainly for citizens with low income. C. Slums. They are mainly used by people with lowest income and new immigrants. The legitimate housing is getting old and loses their attraction to citizens, but the slums are keeping growing and cover most of the urban places. The Government cannot stop the poor to build that as the very low incomes they have. The Roof room effect shows a housing shortage in Cairo. Today, in the city, the many buildings left room on the top and those places are nice place for the poor. Therefore, the slum and informal settlements became strong impression of some development site. These dense concentrations of human and economic activity are often located near factories, garbage dumps, or other noxious activities where eviction pressures are relatively low. While slum residents typically plan, finance, and build their own communities, they do not have the financial resources to also construct basic infrastructure like waste disposal and drainage facilities. With little assistance forthcoming from outside the slums, these facilities are often inadequate, resulting in degraded and unhealthy living and poor environmental conditions. Informal housing and slum areas are, in most cases, the source of environment pollution, both above and underground, slum and informal communities in the GCMR are typically found in the developed portions of the GCA. (M. EI Araby 2002) The pollution of Cairo is another big issue and makes people get away from it. Today, the motor vehicle emission is major source of the air pollution. Another source is industrial emission. Because some of the high density of heavy industry located near the city, the air pollution is really dangerous to public health especially children. All the people are trying to escape from those industrial regions. All of those show that the environment of living in downtown area is really bad and even getting worse; therefore, new settlements were built for people especially for those can afford a new house and want to have a better living standard. Some of those settlements included working, education and other living infrastructure; it became more and more self sufficient and part from the city main part. In the future, as satellite towns increasing, the population will be drag out of the city and disperse to the desert. Transportation issues Traffic and transport situation is a measure of urban functions, while the city has promoted the evolution of modern transportation. In 19th Century, as several trams developed, various modern transports are turning up in Cairo. With the development of the city, vehicle grows rapidly. Until early 1995, an official statistics shows a total of 3.6 million various types of motor vehicles. All the auto motor companies take notice of the huge markets in this country, variation types of cars and new cars exhibitions emerge one after another. However, car congestion has been a threat to pedestrians on the sidewalk. The disorderliness gave a bad impression of this city. When people say that a city, or a part of it, is dangerous or is a jungle what they mean primarily is that they do not feel safe on the sidewalks. (Jacobs, J 1961 p. 37) In downtown area, many pedestrian are exposed with motor vehicle on the street. The lack of effective management and the underlying dangerous created an image of chaos. The problem is also charged upon urban distribution. The urban layout is unreasonable in some ways. Some of the government departments located in the central business district, others located in the Nasser City which is one of the satellite cities. Industrial areas occupied the south of Helwan, housing area are around the north. Major education institute, Cairo University, Al-Azhar University and Ain Shams University located in the different sites. As a result, almost half of the citizen in Cairo is far away from their workplace. About 1 million people have to get out of town for work every day. Therefore, public transportation becomes the key issue of the economic development. From 1970 to 1980, passengers are rising about 10% per year, while public transport is almost not increased. However, in 1990, it accommodated 13million passengers. It is not easy to imagine a bus can carry so many passengers and spend more than an hour for about 1mile. Inadequate of public transport is getting worse; however, several solutions have been established by the Government to solve that. In order to relieve the traffic crisis from the 70s, Cairo, built 13 large-scale motorway bridges and more than 3 thousands pedestrian bridges. The new road system has been built; a large road network connects the city with other towns. New ring road is built surround outside of the city and connected with most of the districts. Especially, the motorway bridge located in the heart of 6th Oct. is up to 10 kilometers. Also, because of the high pressure of public transportation, the need of cheep and fast transport revealed. A study was made about the needed capacity in 1990 for the transportation power, which showed the need of 8,400 Million trips a day for public transportation like buses and 2,770 million trips a day for other transportation systems like taxis and cars. The actual available capacity for public transportation is 4,872 million trips a day which is 3.5 million trips less than the needed capacity. The Government reached an agreement with France, in March 1982 1 September 1987. It takes five and a half years, costs 500 million Egyptian Pound to build 43 kilometers Metro. This is the first subway in the Middle East and Africa, which operates daily from 5:30 to 12 midnight, with a passenger capacity of 60000 people per hour. From 1996, they began to build the second line which connects from Shobra El Kheima to El Mounib and it finished construction in 2005. But as the need of the large capacity keep growing; Egyptian Railway Authority has already proposed another two lines: Line 3, Mohandiseen to Cairo Intl Airport; Line 4, October to Oasis Highway to Mubarak Police Academy. It is expected to finish by 2020. The subway construction to solve the traffic problems has made a significant contribution. Meanwhile, the Government started to develop the river transport on the Nile to relieve the traffic congestion, particularly, the peak traffic congestion pressure. International Airport is also a crucial factor in the economic development of a capital. Cairo international airport stands for the gateway of the city and the country. It located in the Heliopolis district, which is about 10miles away from the city central area. However, the air port will be connected with Metro Cairo in couple of years. It also is the second busiest airport in Africa. Cairo Airport handles about 3,400 daily flights, more than 12,100 weekly flights and about 125,000 yearly flights. The airport has three terminals with the third (Terminal 3) opening in April 2009 which houses Egypt Air and its Star Alliance partners. (Wikipedia 2009) Practically speaking, the airport really contributes international communication of Cairo and promotes the development of economic. Future developments Prime Minister Ahmed Nazif has commissioned the Ministry of Housing, a representative in the General Authority for Urban Planning, to prepare a comprehensive plan for the development of all Downtown Cairo.'(The Boursa Exchange 18 Oct. 2009) Therefore, several large downtown development competitions have been hold recently. The Urban Planning Authority planed to create open space to the citizens by this redevelopment. For example, the Cairo Expo City designed by Zaha Hadid and the Sorouh City district designed by Callison. From 2009, the Government is planning to develop the Ramses Square in the central Cairo. A comprehensive vision of the area will primarily rely on the transformation of downtowns main streets into pedestrian areas, so that it becomes an area of open-air restaurants and spaces. Said Mustafa al-Madbouli, president of the Urban Planning Authority Among the other proposals is to design the areas principal squares, such as Talaat Harb and Abdel Moneim Riad Squares, in a distinctive way, creating multi-story underground garages, so that most of the traffic remains underground. Conclusion about Cairos urbanization problems Theoretically, the right urban planning strategy is a proof for urban development. It is important to note, Egypt is an agricultural country with a high proportion of the population, a large number of peasants moved to cities, particularly in large cities. As result, the urban intensity of Cairo in different levels is rare in the world. The large expansion, rapid growth of population, housing issue, traffic congestion and environmental problems are coming out under this situation. It shows that the main development strategy today is to build satellite towns which can be self-sufficient and be part from the city. It is good for economic growth in the few years but it might be cause more and more problem in the future. First, many projects which have done or are going to do are not considered with sustainable issues. The architecture which introduced might not fit with the Cairo culture and climate. Many critics are still questioning if those new landmark development project will reall y attract people as the failure of 70s master plan. Second, the large expansion will rely on the infrastructure which cost huge amount of money and will take a long time to complete. Before that, how to solve the traffic problem? Lots of people live in new settlement are still working in downtown; they need to travel a long way to work. So this will put more loads on the transportation again. The expansion will make more contrasts between old Cairo and new towns. The poor and people who could not move will leave there. This has lead to a lower standard of living than in other areas and the standard of living in downtown will keep getting worse. However, the development should never leave the old city behind and make escape for upper-mid class people. Cairos development process must make efforts to their self-awareness, to overcome the excessive dependence on external weaknesses. The Government should prevent the blind copy and follow other foreign capitals, seek for large developmen t to leave away from the reality. Many issues are undergoing right now and those are really what should be improve and solve in the first place. Bibliography Alexander, C. (1977), A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction, Oxford University Press. Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (CAPMAS) (1987), Population, Housing and Establishment Census 1986, Preliminary Results, CAPMAS Press, Cairo. CAPMAS (1990), The Statistics Annual Book for A.R.E., 1952-1989, CAPMAS Press, Cairo. CAPMAS (1991), Housing Units and Buildings Characteristics,Final Report, Vol. 4, CAPMAS Press, Cairo. CAPMAS (1997), Population, Housing, and Establishment Census 1996, Preliminary Results, CAPMAS Press, Cairo. Jacobs, J. (1961), The Death and Life of Great American Cities, Random House Inc. Internet Sources World Architecture News.com, http://www.worldarchitecturenews.com/index.php?fuseaction=wanappln.projectviewupload_id=12571 The Boursa Exchange, http://nottooshaabi.wordpress.com/2009/10/18/the-boursafication-of-downtown Wikipedia, Transport in Cairo, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation_in_Cairo (modified on 21.11.09) Wikipedia, Cairo Metro, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo_Metro (modified on 5.1.10)